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Preserved remains or traces of organisms from a past geological age

A fossil (from Classical Latin: fossilis, literally 'obtained by digging')[1] is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in amber, hair, petrified wood, oil, coal, and DNA remnants. The totality of fossils is known every bit the fossil tape.

Paleontology is the written report of fossils: their age, method of germination, and evolutionary significance. Specimens are usually considered to be fossils if they are over 10,000 years erstwhile.[2] The oldest fossils are effectually iii.48 billion years former[iii] [iv] [five] to iv.1 billion years old.[6] [vii] The observation in the 19th century that certain fossils were associated with certain rock strata led to the recognition of a geological timescale and the relative ages of unlike fossils. The development of radiometric dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed scientists to quantitatively measure the absolute ages of rocks and the fossils they host.

There are many processes that lead to fossilization, including permineralization, casts and molds, authigenic mineralization, replacement and recrystallization, adpression, carbonization, and bioimmuration.

Fossils vary in size from 1-micrometre (one µm) leaner[8] to dinosaurs and copse, many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous or calcareous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Fossils may likewise consist of the marks left backside by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or carrion (coprolites). These types of fossil are called trace fossils or ichnofossils, as opposed to body fossils. Some fossils are biochemical and are called chemofossils or biosignatures.

Fossilization processes

The procedure of fossilization varies co-ordinate to tissue blazon and external conditions.

Permineralization

Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried. The empty spaces inside an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the jail cell wall of a constitute cell. Small scale permineralization tin produce very detailed fossils.[9] For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death, otherwise the remains are destroyed by scavengers or decomposition.[10] The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of peel, feathers or even soft tissues.[11] This is a course of diagenesis.

Casts and molds

In some cases, the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped pigsty in the rock is chosen an external mold. If this void is after filled with sediment, the resulting cast resembles what the organism looked like. An endocast, or internal mold, is the result of sediments filling an organism's interior, such as the inside of a bivalve or snail or the hollow of a skull.[12] Endocasts are sometimes termed Steinkerns , especially when bivalves are preserved this way.[13]

Authigenic mineralization

This is a special grade of bandage and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the atmospheric precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around information technology. If this happens chop-chop before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine iii-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, United states of america, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.[14]

Replacement and recrystallization

Silicified (replaced with silica) fossils from the Road Canyon Formation (Middle Permian of Texas)

Replacement occurs when the shell, bone, or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original cloth. A shell is said to exist recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still nowadays but in a different crystal form, as from aragonite to calcite.[15]

Adpression (compression-impression)

Compression fossils, such every bit those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemic reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism'southward tissues. In this instance the fossil consists of original textile, albeit in a geochemically contradistinct state. This chemical change is an expression of diagenesis. Often what remains is a carbonaceous film known as a phytoleim, in which example the fossil is known as a pinch. Often, withal, the phytoleim is lost and all that remains is an impression of the organism in the rock—an impression fossil. In many cases, however, compressions and impressions occur together. For instance, when the stone is broken open, the phytoleim will oft be fastened to i function (compression), whereas the counterpart will just be an impression. For this reason, 1 term covers the two modes of preservation: adpression.[sixteen]

Soft tissue, cell and molecular preservation

Because of their artifact, an unexpected exception to the alteration of an organism's tissues by chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules during fossilization has been the discovery of soft tissue in dinosaur fossils, including blood vessels, and the isolation of proteins and evidence for Deoxyribonucleic acid fragments.[17] [eighteen] [xix] [20] In 2014, Mary Schweitzer and her colleagues reported the presence of iron particles (goethite-aFeO(OH)) associated with soft tissues recovered from dinosaur fossils. Based on diverse experiments that studied the interaction of fe in haemoglobin with claret vessel tissue they proposed that solution hypoxia coupled with iron chelation enhances the stability and preservation of soft tissue and provides the basis for an explanation for the unforeseen preservation of fossil soft tissues.[21] However, a slightly older study based on eight taxa ranging in time from the Devonian to the Jurassic plant that reasonably well-preserved fibrils that probably correspond collagen were preserved in all these fossils and that the quality of preservation depended more often than not on the organisation of the collagen fibers, with tight packing favoring good preservation.[22] There seemed to exist no correlation between geological age and quality of preservation, inside that timeframe.

Carbonization and coalification

Fossils that are carbonized or coalified consist of the organic remains which have been reduced primarily to the element carbon. Carbonized fossils consist of a thin moving-picture show which forms a silhouette of the original organism, and the original organic remains were typically soft tissues. Coalified fossils consist primarily of coal, and the original organic remains were typically woody in composition.

Bioimmuration

The star-shaped holes (Catellocaula vallata) in this Upper Ordovician bryozoan represent a soft-bodied organism preserved by bioimmuration in the bryozoan skeleton.[23]

Bioimmuration occurs when a skeletal organism overgrows or otherwise subsumes another organism, preserving the latter, or an impression of it, within the skeleton.[24] Normally it is a sessile skeletal organism, such as a bryozoan or an oyster, which grows forth a substrate, covering other sessile sclerobionts. Sometimes the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is then preserved in negative relief as a kind of external mold. There are too cases where an organism settles on meridian of a living skeletal organism that grows upwards, preserving the settler in its skeleton. Bioimmuration is known in the fossil record from the Ordovician[25] to the Recent.[24]

Types

Examples of index fossils

Index

Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages). They piece of work on the premise that, although different sediments may look different depending on the conditions nether which they were deposited, they may include the remains of the same species of fossil. The shorter the species' time range, the more precisely dissimilar sediments tin can be correlated, and and so rapidly evolving species' fossils are particularly valuable. The best alphabetize fossils are common, piece of cake to identify at species level and have a broad distribution—otherwise the likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the 2 sediments is poor.

Trace

Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, only besides include coprolites (fossil carrion) and marks left by feeding.[26] [27] Trace fossils are particularly pregnant because they stand for a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilized difficult parts, and they reverberate animal behaviours. Many traces appointment from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to take been capable of making them.[28] Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible, traces may for instance provide the primeval concrete evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals (comparable to earthworms).[27]

Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they requite evidence for the creature's behaviour (in this example, nutrition) rather than morphology. They were showtime described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known every bit "fossil fir cones" and "bezoar stones." They serve a valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct bear witness of the predation and diet of extinct organisms.[29] Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres.

  • A coprolite of a cannibal dinosaur found in southwestern Saskatchewan

  • Densely packed, subaerial or nearshore trackways (Climactichnites wilsoni) fabricated by a putative, slug-similar clam on a Cambrian tidal flat

Transitional

A transitional fossil is any fossilized remains of a life form that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant group.[30] This is peculiarly of import where the descendant group is sharply differentiated by gross anatomy and mode of living from the ancestral group. Considering of the incompleteness of the fossil record, there is usually no way to know exactly how close a transitional fossil is to the point of divergence. These fossils serve equally a reminder that taxonomic divisions are human constructs that have been imposed in hindsight on a continuum of variation.

Microfossils

Microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is simply at or below the level at which the fossil can exist analyzed by the naked middle. A commonly applied cutoff point betwixt "micro" and "macro" fossils is one mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-consummate) organisms in themselves (such equally the marine plankters foraminifera and coccolithophores) or component parts (such as small teeth or spores) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of paleoclimate data, and are also commonly used by biostratigraphers to assistance in the correlation of rock units.

Resin

Fossil resin (colloquially called amber) is a natural polymer found in many types of strata throughout the world, even the Chill. The oldest fossil resin dates to the Triassic, though about dates to the Cenozoic. The excretion of the resin by certain plants is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation for protection from insects and to seal wounds. Fossil resin ofttimes contains other fossils chosen inclusions that were captured past the gummy resin. These include leaner, fungi, other plants, and animals. Animal inclusions are usually small invertebrates, predominantly arthropods such equally insects and spiders, and only extremely rarely a vertebrate such as a modest lizard. Preservation of inclusions can exist exquisite, including small fragments of DNA.

Derived, or reworked

Eroded Jurassic plesiosaur vertebral centrum found in the Lower Cretaceous Faringdon Sponge Gravels in Faringdon, England. An example of a remanié fossil.

A derived, reworked or remanié fossil is a fossil found in stone that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized brute or plant died.[31] Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the stone formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in a younger sedimentary deposit.

Wood

Petrified forest. The internal structure of the tree and bark are maintained in the permineralization process.

Polished section of petrified wood showing annual rings

Fossil woods is wood that is preserved in the fossil record. Wood is ordinarily the role of a constitute that is best preserved (and most easily found). Fossil wood may or may non be petrified. The fossil wood may be the only part of the plant that has been preserved:[32] therefore such wood may get a special kind of botanical proper noun. This volition commonly include "xylon" and a term indicating its presumed analogousness, such equally Araucarioxylon (wood of Araucaria or some related genus), Palmoxylon (wood of an indeterminate palm), or Castanoxylon (wood of an indeterminate chinkapin).[33]

Subfossil

A subfossil dodo skeleton

The term subfossil tin can be used to refer to remains, such every bit bones, nests, or defecations, whose fossilization procedure is not complete, either because the length of time since the animate being involved was living is as well short (less than x,000 years) or because the conditions in which the remains were cached were non optimal for fossilization. Subfossils are often found in caves or other shelters where they can be preserved for thousands of years.[34] The master importance of subfossil vs. fossil remains is that the old contain organic material, which can be used for radiocarbon dating or extraction and sequencing of Deoxyribonucleic acid, poly peptide, or other biomolecules. Additionally, isotope ratios tin provide much data nearly the ecological weather under which extinct animals lived. Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in paleoclimatology.

Subfossils are often found in depositionary environments, such as lake sediments, oceanic sediments, and soils. In one case deposited, physical and chemical weathering tin can change the land of preservation.

Chemical fossils

Chemical fossils, or chemofossils, are chemicals establish in rocks and fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life. Molecular fossils and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils.[35] The oldest traces of life on World are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies plant in zircons that imply the existence of life as early every bit 4.one billion years ago.[vi] [7]

Dating

Estimating dates

Paleontology seeks to map out how life evolved across geologic time. A substantial hurdle is the difficulty of working out fossil ages. Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating. This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than almost 50 one thousand thousand years old an absolute age, and can be authentic to within 0.5% or meliorate.[36] Although radiometric dating requires careful laboratory work, its basic principle is uncomplicated: the rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known, and and then the ratio of the radioactive element to its decay products shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the stone. Radioactive elements are common but in rocks with a volcanic origin, and so the only fossil-begetting rocks that tin be dated radiometrically are volcanic ash layers, which may provide termini for the intervening sediments.[36]

Stratigraphy

Consequently, palaeontologists rely on stratigraphy to date fossils. Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the "layer-cake" that is the sedimentary record.[37] Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it. If a fossil is found betwixt two layers whose ages are known, the fossil's age is claimed to lie between the two known ages.[38] Because rock sequences are not continuous, but may be broken upwards past faults or periods of erosion, it is very difficult to match upwards rock beds that are not directly adjacent. However, fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can exist used to lucifer isolated rocks: this technique is chosen biostratigraphy. For instance, the conodont Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus has a brusk range in the Eye Ordovician period.[39] If rocks of unknown age accept traces of E. pseudoplanus, they have a mid-Ordovician age. Such alphabetize fossils must exist distinctive, exist globally distributed and occupy a short time range to be useful. Misleading results are produced if the alphabetize fossils are incorrectly dated.[40] Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy tin can in full general provide just relative dating (A was before B), which is frequently sufficient for studying evolution. However, this is difficult for some fourth dimension periods, because of the problems involved in matching rocks of the same age beyond continents.[forty] Family-tree relationships also help to narrow down the date when lineages outset appeared. For case, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated "family tree" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved before.

It is besides possible to judge how long ago ii living clades diverged, in other words approximately how long agone their last common antecedent must have lived, by assuming that DNA mutations accrue at a constant charge per unit. These "molecular clocks", however, are fallible, and provide just approximate timing: for example, they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that characteristic in the Cambrian explosion first evolved,[41] and estimates produced by dissimilar techniques may vary by a factor of two.[42]

Limitations

Some of the nearly remarkable gaps in the fossil record (every bit of Oct 2013) show slanting toward organisms with hard parts.

Organisms are only rarely preserved as fossils in the best of circumstances, and only a fraction of such fossils accept been discovered. This is illustrated by the fact that the number of species known through the fossil record is less than v% of the number of known living species, suggesting that the number of species known through fossils must be far less than one% of all the species that have ever lived.[43] Because of the specialized and rare circumstances required for a biological structure to fossilize, but a small per centum of life-forms tin be expected to be represented in discoveries, and each discovery represents only a snapshot of the process of development. The transition itself can only be illustrated and corroborated by transitional fossils, which will never demonstrate an exact half-way point.[44]

The fossil record is strongly biased toward organisms with hard-parts, leaving most groups of soft-bodied organisms with little to no office.[43] It is replete with the mollusks, the vertebrates, the echinoderms, the brachiopods and some groups of arthropods.[45]

Sites

Lagerstätten

Fossil sites with exceptional preservation—sometimes including preserved soft tissues—are known every bit Lagerstätten—High german for "storage places". These formations may take resulted from carcass burying in an anoxic environs with minimal leaner, thus slowing decomposition. Lagerstätten span geological time from the Cambrian period to the present. Worldwide, some of the all-time examples of near-perfect fossilization are the Cambrian Maotianshan shales and Burgess Shale, the Devonian Hunsrück Slates, the Jurassic Solnhofen limestone, and the Carboniferous Mazon Creek localities.

Stromatolites

Stromatolites are layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains past biofilms of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria.[46] Stromatolites provide some of the most ancient fossil records of life on Earth, dating back more than than iii.5 billion years ago.[47]

Stromatolites were much more arable in Precambrian times. While older, Archean fossil remains are presumed to be colonies of blue-green alga, younger (that is, Proterozoic) fossils may be primordial forms of the eukaryote chlorophytes (that is, green algae). Ane genus of stromatolite very mutual in the geologic record is Collenia. The primeval stromatolite of confirmed microbial origin dates to 2.724 billion years ago.[48]

A 2009 discovery provides stiff evidence of microbial stromatolites extending equally far dorsum as 3.45 billion years agone.[49] [50]

Stromatolites are a major elective of the fossil record for life's first iii.5 billion years, peaking about 1.25 billion years ago.[49] They subsequently declined in affluence and multifariousness,[51] which by the start of the Cambrian had fallen to 20% of their tiptop. The most widely supported caption is that stromatolite builders barbarous victims to grazing creatures (the Cambrian substrate revolution), implying that sufficiently complex organisms were common over 1 billion years ago.[52] [53] [54]

The connexion between grazer and stromatolite abundance is well documented in the younger Ordovician evolutionary radiation; stromatolite abundance too increased afterwards the end-Ordovician and end-Permian extinctions decimated marine animals, falling back to earlier levels as marine animals recovered.[55] Fluctuations in metazoan population and diverseness may not have been the just factor in the reduction in stromatolite abundance. Factors such as the chemistry of the surround may accept been responsible for changes.[56]

While prokaryotic blue-green alga themselves reproduce asexually through jail cell sectionalisation, they were instrumental in priming the surround for the evolutionary evolution of more than complex eukaryotic organisms. Cyanobacteria (equally well every bit extremophile Gammaproteobacteria) are thought to exist largely responsible for increasing the corporeality of oxygen in the primeval world's temper through their continuing photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria use water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to create their food. A layer of mucus oft forms over mats of cyanobacterial cells. In modern microbial mats, debris from the surrounding habitat tin can become trapped within the mucus, which can be cemented by the calcium carbonate to grow thin laminations of limestone. These laminations can accrete over time, resulting in the banded pattern common to stromatolites. The domal morphology of biological stromatolites is the result of the vertical growth necessary for the continued infiltration of sunlight to the organisms for photosynthesis. Layered spherical growth structures termed oncolites are similar to stromatolites and are also known from the fossil record. Thrombolites are poorly laminated or not-laminated clotted structures formed by cyanobacteria common in the fossil tape and in modern sediments.[48]

The Zebra River Canyon expanse of the Kubis platform in the deeply dissected Zaris Mountains of southwestern Namibia provides an extremely well exposed example of the thrombolite-stromatolite-metazoan reefs that developed during the Proterozoic period, the stromatolites hither being better developed in updip locations under weather of higher electric current velocities and greater sediment influx.[57]

Astrobiology

It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars. Furthermore, organic components (biosignatures) that are frequently associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.[58]

On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now exist searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, also every bit aboriginal water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may take been habitable.[59] [sixty] [61] [62] The search for testify of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[59] [60]

Pseudofossils

An example of a pseudofossil: Manganese dendrites on a limestone bedding plane from Solnhofen, Frg; calibration in mm

Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced past geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can hands exist mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as geological dendrite crystals, are formed past naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in atomic number 26 ore) and moss agates, which wait like moss or establish leaves. Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to exist dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

History of the written report of fossils

Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history. The fossils themselves are referred to every bit the fossil tape. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists examine the fossil record to empathize the process of evolution and the mode particular species accept evolved.

Ancient civilizations

Fossils have been visible and common throughout most of natural history, and so documented human interaction with them goes dorsum every bit far as recorded history, or earlier.

There are many examples of paleolithic stone knives in Europe, with fossil echinoderms ready precisely at the hand grip, going all the way back to Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals.[63] These ancient peoples also drilled holes through the eye of those round fossil shells, obviously using them every bit beads for necklaces.

The ancient Egyptians gathered fossils of species that resembled the bones of modern species they worshipped. The god Gear up was associated with the hippopotamus, therefore fossilized bones of hippo-like species were kept in that deity'due south temples.[64] 5-rayed fossil sea urchin shells were associated with the deity Sopdu, the Morning Star, equivalent of Venus in Roman mythology.[63]

Ceratopsian skulls are mutual in the Dzungarian Gate mount pass in Asia, an area one time famous for gold mines, as well as its endlessly common cold winds. This has been attributed to legends of both gryphons and the land of Hyperborea

Fossils announced to have directly contributed to the mythology of many civilizations, including the ancient Greeks. Classical Greek historian Herodotos wrote of an area near Hyperborea where gryphons protected golden treasure. At that place was indeed gold mining in that estimate region, where beaked Protoceratops skulls were common as fossils.

A after Greek scholar, Aristotle, eventually realized that fossil seashells from rocks were similar to those constitute on the embankment, indicating the fossils were once living animals. He had previously explained them in terms of vaporous exhalations,[65] which Western farsi polymath Avicenna modified into the theory of petrifying fluids ( succus lapidificatus ). Recognition of fossil seashells as originating in the sea was built upon in the 14th century by Albert of Saxony, and accepted in some class by most naturalists by the 16th century.[66]

Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote of "tongue stones", which he called glossopetra. These were fossil shark teeth, thought past some classical cultures to look like the tongues of people or snakes.[67] He likewise wrote about the horns of Ammon, which are fossil ammonites, from whence the group of shelled octopus-cousins ultimately draws its modern proper name. Pliny likewise makes ane of the earlier known references to toadstones, idea until the 18th century to be a magical cure for poisonous substance originating in the heads of toads, only which are fossil teeth from Lepidotes, a Cretaceous ray-finned fish.[68]

The Plains tribes of Due north America are idea to accept similarly associated fossils, such as the many intact pterosaur fossils naturally exposed in the region, with their ain mythology of the thunderbird.[69]

There is no such direct mythological connectedness known from prehistoric Africa, but in that location is considerable testify of tribes at that place excavating and moving fossils to ceremonial sites, apparently treating them with some reverence.[70]

In Japan, fossil shark teeth were associated with the mythical tengu, idea to be the razor-precipitous claws of the creature, documented some fourth dimension afterward the eighth century Advertizing.[67]

In medieval Cathay, the fossil bones of ancient mammals including Homo erectus were frequently mistaken for "dragon bones" and used as medicine and aphrodisiacs. In addition, some of these fossil bones are collected as "art" by scholars, who left scripts on various artifacts, indicating the fourth dimension they were added to a collection. 1 good example is the famous scholar Huang Tingjian of the Song Dynasty during the 11th century, who kept a specific seashell fossil with his own poem engraved on it.[71] In his Dream Pool Essays published in 1088, Song dynasty Chinese scholar-official Shen Kuo hypothesized that marine fossils found in a geological stratum of mountains located hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean was testify that a prehistoric seashore had once existed at that place and shifted over centuries of time.[72] [73] His ascertainment of petrified bamboos in the dry out northern climate zone of what is now Yan'an, Shaanxi province, China, led him to advance early ideas of gradual climatic change due to bamboo naturally growing in wetter climate areas.[73] [74] [75]

In medieval Christendom, fossilized sea creatures on mountainsides were seen as proof of the biblical deluge of Noah's Ark. Afterwards observing the existence of seashells in mountains, the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (c. 570 – 478 BC) speculated that the world was once inundated in a great flood that buried living creatures in drying mud.[76] [77]

In 1027, the Persian Avicenna explained fossils' stoniness in The Book of Healing:

If what is said concerning the petrifaction of animals and plants is true, the crusade of this (phenomenon) is a powerful mineralizing and petrifying virtue which arises in certain stony spots, or emanates suddenly from the earth during earthquake and subsidences, and petrifies whatever comes into contact with information technology. As a thing of fact, the petrifaction of the bodies of plants and animals is non more extraordinary than the transformation of waters.[78]

From the 13th century to the present day, scholars pointed out that the fossil skulls of Deinotherium giganteum, found in Crete and Greece, might accept been interpreted every bit being the skulls of the Cyclopes of Greek mythology, and are possibly the origin of that Greek myth.[79] [lxxx] Their skulls appear to have a single center-pigsty in the forepart, simply like their modern elephant cousins, though in fact information technology's really the opening for their trunk.

Fossil shells from the cretaceous era body of water urchin, Micraster, were used in medieval times equally both shepherd's crowns to protect houses, and as painted fairy loaves by bakers to bring luck to their bread-making.

In Norse mythology, echinoderm shells (the round v-part button left over from a body of water urchin) were associated with the god Thor, not merely existence incorporated in thunderstones, representations of Thor'due south hammer and subsequent hammer-shaped crosses equally Christianity was adopted, but also kept in houses to garner Thor's protection.[63]

These grew into the shepherd's crowns of English sociology, used for decoration and every bit good luck charms, placed by the doorway of homes and churches.[81] In Suffolk, a different species was used every bit a practiced-luck charm by bakers, who referred to them every bit fairy loaves, associating them with the similarly shaped loaves of bread they baked.[82] [83]

Early modern explanations

More scientific views of fossils emerged during the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci concurred with Aristotle'southward view that fossils were the remains of ancient life.[84] For example, da Vinci noticed discrepancies with the biblical flood narrative as an explanation for fossil origins:

If the Deluge had carried the shells for distances of three and iv hundred miles from the ocean it would take carried them mixed with various other natural objects all heaped upwards together; only even at such distances from the sea nosotros see the oysters all together and besides the shellfish and the cuttlefish and all the other shells which congregate together, found all together dead; and the solitary shells are constitute apart from ane another as we see them every day on the body of water-shores.

And nosotros find oysters together in very big families, among which some may be seen with their shells still joined together, indicating that they were left in that location by the body of water and that they were withal living when the strait of Gibraltar was cut through. In the mountains of Parma and Piacenza multitudes of shells and corals with holes may be seen still sticking to the rocks...."[85]

In 1666, Nicholas Steno examined a shark, and made the association of its teeth with the "tongue stones" of ancient Greco-Roman mythology, final that those were not in fact the tongues of venomous snakes, but the teeth of some long-extinct species of shark.[67]

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) included micrographs of fossils in his Micrographia and was amongst the first to observe fossil forams. His observations on fossils, which he stated to be the petrified remains of creatures some of which no longer existed, were published posthumously in 1705.[86]

William Smith (1769–1839), an English culvert engineer, observed that rocks of unlike ages (based on the law of superposition) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one some other in a regular and determinable order. He observed that rocks from afar locations could be correlated based on the fossils they independent. He termed this the principle of faunal succession. This principle became 1 of Darwin'due south primary pieces of evidence that biological evolution was real.

Georges Cuvier came to believe that most if non all the fauna fossils he examined were remains of extinct species. This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of idea chosen catastrophism. About the terminate of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said:

All of these facts, consequent among themselves, and not opposed past any report, seem to me to prove the existence of a globe previous to ours, destroyed past some kind of catastrophe.[87]

Involvement in fossils, and geology more by and large, expanded during the early nineteenth century. In Great britain, Mary Anning's discoveries of fossils, including the first complete ichthyosaur and a complete plesiosaurus skeleton, sparked both public and scholarly involvement.[88]

Linnaeus and Darwin

Early naturalists well understood the similarities and differences of living species leading Linnaeus to develop a hierarchical classification system still in use today. Darwin and his contemporaries start linked the hierarchical structure of the tree of life with the then very sparse fossil tape. Darwin eloquently described a procedure of descent with modification, or evolution, whereby organisms either adapt to natural and changing environmental pressures, or they perish.

When Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Option, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, the oldest creature fossils were those from the Cambrian Period, now known to be about 540 one thousand thousand years onetime. He worried about the absence of older fossils because of the implications on the validity of his theories, merely he expressed hope that such fossils would exist constitute, noting that: "only a small portion of the earth is known with accuracy." Darwin also pondered the sudden advent of many groups (i.eastward. phyla) in the oldest known Cambrian fossiliferous strata.[89]

After Darwin

Since Darwin's time, the fossil tape has been extended to between 2.iii and 3.5 billion years.[90] Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or microfossils. However, macroscopic fossils are at present known from the tardily Proterozoic. The Ediacara biota (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular eukaryotes.

The fossil record and faunal succession class the ground of the scientific discipline of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils. For the commencement 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the simply means for determining the relative age of rocks. The geologic fourth dimension calibration was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and stratigraphers.

Since the early on years of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such every bit radiometric dating (including potassium/argon, argon/argon, uranium serial, and, for very recent fossils, radiocarbon dating) take been used to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites are over three.4 billion years old.

Modern era

The fossil tape is life'due south evolutionary ballsy that unfolded over four billion years as environmental weather and genetic potential interacted in accordance with natural selection.

The Virtual Fossil Museum[91]

Paleontology has joined with evolutionary biology to share the interdisciplinary chore of outlining the tree of life, which inevitably leads backwards in time to Precambrian microscopic life when cell structure and functions evolved. Earth's deep fourth dimension in the Proterozoic and deeper still in the Archean is only "recounted by microscopic fossils and subtle chemic signals."[92] Molecular biologists, using phylogenetics, tin can compare protein amino acid or nucleotide sequence homology (i.eastward., similarity) to evaluate taxonomy and evolutionary distances amongst organisms, with limited statistical confidence. The study of fossils, on the other mitt, can more than specifically pinpoint when and in what organism a mutation kickoff appeared. Phylogenetics and paleontology work together in the description of science's still dim view of the appearance of life and its evolution.[93]

Niles Eldredge's study of the Phacops trilobite genus supported the hypothesis that modifications to the arrangement of the trilobite's eye lenses proceeded by fits and starts over millions of years during the Devonian.[94] Eldredge'southward interpretation of the Phacops fossil tape was that the aftermaths of the lens changes, only not the quickly occurring evolutionary process, were fossilized. This and other data led Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge to publish their seminal newspaper on punctuated equilibrium in 1971.

Synchrotron X-ray tomographic analysis of early on Cambrian bilaterian embryonic microfossils yielded new insights of metazoan evolution at its primeval stages. The tomography technique provides previously unattainable three-dimensional resolution at the limits of fossilization. Fossils of two enigmatic bilaterians, the worm-similar Markuelia and a putative, primitive protostome, Pseudooides, provide a peek at germ layer embryonic development. These 543-one thousand thousand-year-old embryos support the emergence of some aspects of arthropod evolution earlier than previously thought in the tardily Proterozoic. The preserved embryos from China and Siberia underwent rapid diagenetic phosphatization resulting in exquisite preservation, including cell structures.[ jargon ] This research is a notable example of how noesis encoded by the fossil record continues to contribute otherwise unattainable data on the emergence and development of life on Globe. For example, the research suggests Markuelia has closest affinity to priapulid worms, and is next to the evolutionary branching of Priapulida, Nematoda and Arthropoda.[95] [ jargon ]

Despite significant advances in uncovering and identifying paleontological specimens, it is generally accustomed that the fossil record is vastly incomplete.[96] [97] Approaches for measuring the abyss of the fossil record take been developed for numerous subsets of species, including those grouped taxonomically,[98] [99] temporally,[100] environmentally/geographically,[101] or in sum.[102] [103] This encompasses the subfield of taphonomy and the study of biases in the paleontological record.[104] [105] [106]

Trading and collecting

Fossil trading is the practice of buying and selling fossils. This is many times done illegally with artifacts stolen from research sites, costing many important scientific specimens each year.[107] The problem is quite pronounced in Mainland china, where many specimens have been stolen.[108]

Fossil collecting (sometimes, in a non-scientific sense, fossil hunting) is the collection of fossils for scientific written report, hobby, or profit. Fossil collecting, equally skillful past amateurs, is the predecessor of modern paleontology and many notwithstanding collect fossils and study fossils as amateurs. Professionals and amateurs alike collect fossils for their scientific value.

Equally medicine

The use of fossils to address health issues is rooted in traditional medicine and include the utilize of fossils as talismans. The specific fossil to use to alleviate or cure an illness is oftentimes based on its resemblance to the symptoms or afflicted organ. The usefulness of fossils as medicine is nearly entirely a placebo result, though fossil material might conceivably have some antacid activeness or supply some essential minerals.[109] The use of dinosaur basic as "dragon bones" has persisted in Traditional Chinese medicine into modern times, with mid-Cretaceous dinosaur bones being used for the purpose in Ruyang County during the early on 21st century.[110]

Gallery

  • Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas. Drove of the Abbot of Dhankar Gompa, HP, India

  • Three small ammonite fossils, each approximately one.5 cm beyond

  • Eocene fossil bloom from Florissant, Colorado

  • Fossils from beaches of the Baltic Sea island of Gotland, placed on paper with 7 mm (0.28 inch) squares

See besides

  • Bioerosion – Erosion of difficult substrates by living organisms
  • Cryptospore – Fossilised primitive found spore
  • Endolith – Organism living inside a rock
  • List of fossil parks – None
  • List of molluscan genera represented in the fossil tape
  • Living fossil – Organism resembling a form long shown in the fossil record
  • Paleobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils
  • Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils
  • Schultz's rule – Relationship between tooth wear and lifespan of fossil organisms
  • Shark tooth
  • Signor–Lipps effect – Sampling bias in the fossil record raising difficulties to characterize extinctions

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Farther reading

  • "One thousand Canyon cliff collapse reveals 313 million-yr-one-time fossil footprints" 21 Aug 2020, CNN
  • "Hints of fossil Dna discovered in dinosaur skull" by Michael Greshko, three Mar 2020, National Geographic
  • "Fossils for Kids | Larn all about how fossils are formed, the types of fossils and more!" Video (2:23), 27 January 2020, Clarendon Learning
  • "Fossil & their formation" Video (9:55), 15 Nov 2019, Khan Academy
  • "How are dinosaur fossils formed? by Lisa Hendry, Natural History Museum, London
  • "Fossils 101" Video (4:27), 22 Aug 2019, National Geographic
  • "How to Spot the Fossils Hiding in Plain Sight" past Jessica Leigh Hester, 23 February 2018, Atlas Obscura
  • "Information technology's extremely hard to become a fossil", by Olivia Judson, 30 December 2008, The New York Times
  • "Bones Are Not the Only Fossils", by Olivia Judson, iv Mar 2008, The New York Times

External links

  • Fossils on In Our Time at the BBC
  • The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution
  • Paleoportal, geology and fossils of the U.s.
  • The Fossil Tape, a complete listing of the families, orders, form and phyla found in the fossil record
  • Paleontology at Curlie
  • Ernest Ingersoll (1920). "Fossils". Encyclopedia Americana.
  • "Fossil". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil

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